But should he be?

Ashikaga Takauji, 足利尊氏, was the first shogun of the Muromachi Period (1336-1573), and along with the monk Dōkyō and Taira no Masakado, one of Japan’s Three Great Villains. I have written about Dōkyō as the First Great Villain, and Masakado in my series on Japan’s Three Great Vengeful Ghosts. Now, we’ll take a look at Takauji.

Great Villain #2 — Shogun Ashikaga Takauji

Takauji was instrumental in helping Emperor Go-Daigo overthrow the Kamakura Shogunate and restore power to the imperial house. Later, he — along with samurai throughout the country — became disillusioned by the emperor’s cronyism and extravagance. He forced Go-Daigo out of Kyoto, enthroned Emperor Kōmyō, and was named the first shogun of what came to be called the Muromachi Period.

But before I get ahead of myself, let’s go back in time a bit.

Background

In the late 13th century, Kublai Khan’s Mongol army invaded Japan. These incursions were thwarted not so much by the samurai who fought against the foreign barbarians, but by the “divine wind,” kamikaze, of two typhoons that destroyed the Mongol armada.

After battles, it had long been the custom for samurai to be rewarded with the wealth and lands of the conquered. As no lands had been conquered during the wars with the Mongols, none was given. The samurai who had risked their lives for their country were vexed.

Some years later, regent Hōjō Sadatoki, the ruler in Kamakura, issued an order forgiving the debts of those who had fought and returning confiscated lands to their original owners. This well-intentioned decree did not bring the hoped-for results. He ended up with dissatisfied samurai, a damaged economy, and serious disaffection with the Kamakura regime.

In 1331, Emperor Go-Daigo decided the time was ripe for a return to imperial rule. His armies attacked the shogunate forces in southern Kyoto. Hōjō Takatoki sent his trusted general, Ashikaga Takauji, to fight the imperial troops.

Although in mourning for his father who had just died, the loyal Takauji obeyed his lord and went to face the emperor’s army. He was victorious, although one can only imagine his resentment at abandoning his mourning to fight for the Hōjō.

As a result of this defeat, Go-Daigo was captured and banished to the Oki Islands, off the coast of what is now Shimane Prefecture.

In his absence, his son, Prince Morinaga, continued fighting, along with his storied general, Kusunoki Masashige, famed for holding his own against much larger armies and inflicting heavy casualties on the Hōjō forces.

In 1333, Go-Daigo escaped from Oki in the dark of night with the help of a fisherman. When word got out, many generals rallied to his cause. This encouraged Go-Daigo to issue an edict to overthrow the powerful Hōjō family. A full-out war ensued.

Again, Hōjō Takatoki sent Takauji to defeat the imperial forces in Kyoto. Upon reaching the city, Takauji, knowing the way the wind was blowing, switched sides. Instead of attacking Go-Daigo’s army, he attacked the Shogunate’s deputies stationed at Rokuhara Tandai, the Kamakura government’s policing agency in the capital.

The renowned warrior, Nitta Yoshisada, far to the north, then rallied his forces to join the battle. He led his army to Kamakura, the shogunate’s nearly impregnable stronghold, surrounded by mountains and the sea.

Avoiding the treacherous mountain passes, Nitta thrust his sword into the sea and prayed for the waters to withdraw so his army could pass through and reach Kamakura.

The sea withdrew, and Nitta conquered the shogunate’s stronghold. Hōjō Takatoki and over 700 of his vassals committed suicide at the Hōjō family temple, Tōshōji.

This marked the end of the Kamakura Shogunate.

The Kenmu Restoration (1333-1336)

With the Hōjō dynasty defeated, Go-Daigo reascended the throne.

Go-Daigo appointed his three generals, Ashikaga Takauji, Kusunoki Masashige, and Nitta Yoshisada, shugo, or military governors. He named his son and heir to the throne, Prince Morinaga, the shogun.

He bestowed upon Takauji a new name, Takeru, meaning valiant warrior. Yet that was not enough.

Samurai who fought for Go-Daigo expected to receive positions of power, rewards, and lands that had belonged to the wealthy Hōjō. Although they were rewarded to a degree, so were aristocrats who had done nothing and even some of the ladies of the court. This caused many samurai to return to their domains filled with dissatisfaction and resentment.

Adding insult to injury, Go-Daigo imposed heavy taxes so that he could build a new Imperial Palace.

The people were not pleased. A rebellion broke out in Kamakura among the remnants of the Hōjō, and the fires of rebellion spread. Takauji asked Go-Daigo if he would name him shogun and send him to quash the uprising. Go-Daigo refused. Takauji disregarded his words and led his army to put down the rebellion, then distributed the conquered lands to his samurai, gaining widespread support.

Go-Daigo sent Nitta Yoshisada to vanquish Takauji and his armies. Unexpectedly, the great general’s horse was felled by an arrow, trapping him beneath its heavy body and making him an easy target for archers. Legend tells us that the noble Nitta pulled out his short sword and severed his own head.

The fallen generals’ soldiers rallied to Takauji, who set off to conquer Kyoto with his reinforced troops.

Takauji took Kyoto, although he was soon forced out by Kusunoki Masashige and the imperial army, and he retired to Kyushu to regroup. There, he gained the support of local lords, also dissatisfied with Go-Daigo’s rule, and was soon marching back to Kyoto with ever-growing numbers.

At the Imperial Palace in Kyoto, Masashige counseled Go-Daigo to retreat to Mount Hiei and allow Takauji to take the capital.

I humbly hope that your majesty will retire from the city for a time and allow Takauji to freely enter Kyoto. I will go to Kawachi and intercept their provisions and stores. Their army will consequently dwindle while ours will increase. Afterward, we can attack the rebels from opposite sides, and we may fairly hope to defeat them.

Go-Daigo dismissed his words and ordered him to battle. Masashige realized that conquering Takauji’s vastly superior forces was impossible. He and his army were being sent to their deaths.

Indeed, at the Battle of Minatogawa, Masashige’s army suffered terrible losses, and his samurai were reduced to a rugged few. Seeing the hopelessness of his situation, Masashige and his brother retired to a peasant’s house. What followed is a conversation that has gone down in history, taught to generations of children.

Masashige asked his brother, “What do you desire after death?”

His brother answered, “Would that I had seven lives to give for my country!”

Masashige replied with eyes alight, “That is indeed best.”

Then the two brothers took their short swords and cut open their stomachs, freeing their spirits to be born again as warriors without suffering the disgrace of defeat.

The victorious Takauji reentered Kyoto. Go-Daigo again fled to Mount Hiei, but in a show of peace, he sent the Three Imperial Treasures to Takauji. With those, Takauji enthroned Emperor Kōmyō.

But, Go-Daigo was a sly one. The Imperial Treasures were fakes. He fled to Yoshino in the south with the real Treasures and set up his own Southern Court.

This marked the beginning of the Nanboku-chō Era, the Northern and Southern Courts period, that continued for nearly 60 years.

Soon thereafter, in 1339, Emperor Go-Daigo died. Takauji, out of respect for the emperor, had Tenryuji Temple in Kyoto constructed as a setting for Go-Daigo’s memorial service.

Hero or villain?

Why is Ashikaga Takauji one of Japan’s Three Great Villains?

It all comes down to who writes the history books.

In this case, 17th-century Neo-Confucian scholar and founder of the Mito school of philosophy, Tokugawa Mitsukuni, 徳川光圀. He began the work on The Great History of Japan, 大日本史, Dai Nihonshi, the writing of its 402 volumes not completed until generations later.

Mitsukuni’s philosophy emphasized extreme loyalty to superiors, and the superiors’ paternal care of their subjects. This type of Neo-Confucianism formed the basis for the strict class demarcations of the Edo period — samurai, farmers, craftsmen, merchants.

Mitsukuni wrote that since Takauji was disloyal to the legitimate emperor, Go-Daigo, by installing another emperor in his place, he was guilty of treason. This disloyalty was the antithesis of what he presented as Neo-Confucian, and as such, samurai, values.

The Mito school’s philosophy informed the Sonnō jōi movement (尊王攘夷, Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) of the mid-19th century, inspiring the forces that defeated the Tokugawa shoguns. In line with this philosophy, the Meiji government that replaced the Tokugawa Shogunate was based on direct imperial rule.

Emperors Meiji, Taisho, and Showa (known to most Westerners as Hirohito) were treated with god-like reverence by the people of Japan, who were considered subjects, not citizens. All were required to swear allegiance to the emperor.

In light of this philosophy of utmost loyalty, it is easy to see how Ashikaga Takauji was painted as villainous.

His opposite is embodied in the loyal Kusunoki Masashige, who did not hesitate to obey his emperor’s orders, knowing full well he was being sent to his death. He is immortalized in a bronze statue in front of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo and as a Shinto deity at Minatogawa Shrine in Kobe, near where he took his life.

References:

Einin no Tokuseirei, 日本史上最悪だった男～足利尊氏, The Kamakura Period, Japan: Its History, Traditions, and Religions, with the Narrative of a Visit in 1879, by Sir Edward J. Reed.

The post Ashikaga Takauji — One of Japan’s 3 Great Villains first appeared on More Than Tokyo and is written by Diane Tincher.

Buddhist priest and one of Japan’s 3 Great Villains

Perhaps you’ve read my series on Japan’s Three Great Vengeful Ghosts — Taira no Masakado, Emperor Sutoku, and my favorite, Sugawara no Michizane. Knowing how much Japan loves threes — Three Great Castles, Three Holy Mountains, Three Famous Gardens — it is not surprising that Japan also has Three Great Villains.

Today, we will see how the monk Dōkyō, 道鏡, who lived more than a millennium before his Russian counterpart, earned his place among the villainous three.

Great Villain #1 — the Buddhist Priest Dōkyō

Records of Dōkyō’s early years are sketchy.

We know he was born into a low-level aristocratic family in what is now Kochi Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. He became a Buddhist priest and studied under Gien, a senior priest of Hossō Buddhism. He studied Sanskrit, something only the most educated knew.

Dōkyō went on to practice a type of shamanistic Buddhism on Mount Katsuragi, where the founder of Shugendō, En no Gyōja, also stayed. Through meditation and mountain aestheticism, Dōkyō is said to have mastered control of nature and gained powers of supernatural healing. He studied esoteric sutras dealing with astrology and magical spells.

The first mention of Dōkyō in historical records is in 748 when he served Rōben, the founding priest of the great Tōdaiji temple in Nara.

Before long, Dōkyō was engaged as the priest of the Imperial Court. His reputation as a healer gave him entry into the court of the retired Empress Kōken who had fallen ill.

Dōkyō used his magical arts to heal her. He became Kōken’s trusted confidant, and, according to some accounts, her lover. The Shoku Nihongi, an 8th-century history, describes Dōkyō as receiving the “affection” of the empress, leaving future scholars to speculate.

Kōken’s questionable relationship with the priest raised eyebrows in the court and earned her an admonishment from Emperor Junnin. Rather than restraining her, his words only served to anger her.

Though retired, the powerful Kōken decreed that Emperor Junnin would deal only with ceremonial matters, while she would handle affairs of state, and judgment concerning all rewards and punishments.

After reigning for just six years, Junnin was forced to abdicate. Kōken, now a Buddhist nun, retook the imperial throne as Empress Shōtoku. She proclaimed that an ordained Buddhist empress must have an ordained Buddhist Chief Minister. Dōkyō filled that spot, giving him unprecedented political power.

One year later, Empress Shōtoku named Dōkyō Daijō-daijin, Chancellor of the Realm, the highest political position in the land in which he presided over the Great Council of State.

State-sponsored Buddhism spreads

Shōtoku’s father, the great Emperor Shōmu, had promoted Buddhism throughout the land. He ordered the building of the Great Buddha and Tōdaiji temple in Nara to huge international fanfare, and he established state-sponsored temples and nunneries in each province for the protection of the country.

Dōkyō, together with Empress Shōtoku, accelerated this state-sponsored Buddhism. The empress went on pilgrimages to the great temples in the Nara area, bestowing lavish donations upon them, and granting court ranks to those involved in the building of new temples.

With such incentives, temples proliferated.

Dōkyō promoted members of his clan to important court positions, his brother Kiyohito advancing as far as Dainagon, Major Counselor of the First Rank. He granted land to the great Usa Shinto Shrine in northern Kyushu, and work on building a Buddhist temple on the shrine grounds commenced. The next year, his brother Kiyohito was named Governor General of Dazaifu, the administrative capital in northern Kyushu.

A sign from the gods?

Then, a strange omen occurred. A bone of the Buddha miraculously appeared out of the Bishamon statue at the Sumidera Temple in northeastern Nara. The empress delightedly proclaimed,

The sacred bone of the Buddha which has now been manifested… is brighter and more beautiful of color than ever we have seen; the mind cannot encompass its splendor… It has been due to acts of leadership and guidance… performed by our Chief Minister and Master, who stands at the head of all priests, that this rare and holy sign has been vouchsafed us…. We bestow on our teacher, the Chief Minister, the title of King of the Law.”

Empress shōtoku

According to the empress’s decree, Dōkyō was named Hō-ō, 法王, the ultimate Dharma King, providing him with the same clothing, food, and palanquin as an emperor. He was also granted military power.

For the first time in history, Buddhist rites of penance were performed at the imperial palace on the first day of the year. On the same day, courtiers were required to pay respects to the exalted Dōkyō.

Only one powerful position remained out of his grasp, and Dōkyō was determined to get it.

Years later, it was discovered that the “miraculous bone omen” had been manufactured by a priest friend of Dōkyō’s.

More omens

Five-colored clouds were sighted above Ise, where the Grand Shrine of Amaterasu the Sun Goddess is located. Amaterasu is one of the most revered Shinto kami and the ancestor of all Japanese emperors.

The beautiful clouds were interpreted as a sign of favor to Dōkyō. So portentous were they, that the era name was changed to Jingō Keiun (Divine Protection, Auspicious Clouds). These clouds were followed by other omens, likely due to Dōkyō appointing a relative to the Bureau of Yin-Yang that was in charge of reporting omens.

From Dōkyō’s nephew’s province, various auspicious animals were presented at Nara: a white-tailed gray horse, white pheasants, tortoises, and ravens.

Then came the greatest sign of all. According to the Shoku Nihongi, a pronouncement arrived from Hachiman, the kami deified at the great Usa Shrine in Kyushu:

Let Dōkyō be made emperor and there shall be great peace in the land.”

Dōkyō was overjoyed. Finally, his longed-for goal would be reached!

The courtiers were not so pleased. They sent the faithful Wake no Kiyomaro to seek confirmation from the nun Hōkin, a trustworthy oracle at the Usa Shrine.

Before Kiyomaro left Nara, Dōkyō met with him and promised, “The god has no doubt requested a messenger in order to announce my election to the throne. If this is accomplished, I will bestow government rank and office upon you.”

Unaffected by Dōkyō’s words, Kiyomaro came back with the following epic pronouncement:

Since the establishment of our state, the distinction between lord and subject has been fixed. Never has there been an occasion when a subject was made lord. The throne of Heavenly Sun succession shall be given to one of the imperial lineage; wicked persons should immediately be swept away.”

As recorded in the Shoku Nihongi

Dōkyō was enraged. He maneuvered to have Kiyomaro banished to Osumi in southern Kyushu, but not before having him severely beaten and his hamstrings severed. The oracle Hōkin was defrocked and exiled to what is now Kumamoto Prefecture.

Betraying his petty and spiteful nature, Dōkyō changed Kiyomaro’s name from 清麻呂, “Pure Maro” to 汚麻呂, Kitanamaro, “Dirty Maro.” This was a particular dig because purity is closely associated with morality in Japanese religious tradition. Then he sent an assassin to kill Kiyomaro en route to Kyushu. This attempt was foiled by a sudden storm.

Had omens finally turned against the conniving Dōkyō?

The villain’s fall

Upon Shōtoku’s death, Emperor Kōnin, the 62-year-old grandson of Emperor Tenji, acceded to the throne. He stripped Dōkyō of all titles and banished him to what is now Tochigi Prefecture, where he died two years later and was buried in a commoner’s grave.

Kiyomaro was recalled to Nara from exile, granted the governorship of two provinces, and elevated to Junior Minister of State. He then launched an investigation into the oracles at Usa Shrine. Several frauds were discovered, and the head priest resigned in disgrace.

Kiyomaro continued in the Nara government and helped direct the construction of the new capital of Heian-Kyo (Kyoto) during the reign of Emperor Kanmu. The move to Heian-Kyo in 794 was crucial in distancing the imperial court from the influence of the powerful Buddhist hierarchy in Nara.

Today, Wake no Kiyomaro is revered as the Shinto Deity, Goō Daimyōjin, Great Protector of the Emperor, and countless shrines across the country are dedicated to him.

Dōkyō, on the other hand, has gone down in infamy as the conniving man who sought to break the sacred imperial line and steal the throne for himself.

References:

Bender, Ross. The Hachiman Cult and the Dōkyō Incident, Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 34, No. 2, Summer, 1979, kotobank.jp, encyclopedia.com

The post Dokyo—The Rasputin of Japan who Almost Became Emperor first appeared on More Than Tokyo and is written by Diane Tincher.